Biology Lessons Part 2: Population Biology

Lesson 2.4: How Do Organisms Vary?

Time To Ponder Supplies Objectives Introduction and Background Resources AAAS Benchmarks

Part I. Mendelian Genetics Exercise 1: Self Classification Exercise 2: Summary Questions Part II. Characteristics that Vary Continuously and How We Measure Them Exercise 1: Organize Your Initial Knowledge Exercise 2: Measuring Continuous Variation Exercise 3: Pooling Data for Precision Exercise 4: Knowledge of Metric System

Grade Level		Prospective and Practicing K-8 Teachers; may be adapted for use in K-12 classes
Time		Exercises 1 and 2 will take approximately 2 1/2 hours.
To Ponder		1.	Why do we look like members of our biological family?
		2.	How can siblings with the same two parents look completely different?
		3.	Are attributes such as your temperament and your wit due to "nature or nurture"?
		4.	If all dogs are the same species, how can a Chihuahua and a Great Dane look so different?
		5.	What are the chances that your children will have the same color eyes as you do?
		6.	What is the difference between Mendelian traits and quantitative traits?
Supplies		These are some materials you may want for the sample experiments supplied with this lesson. metric ruler meter stick pencil graph paper metric tape measure
Objectives			Once you have completed this lesson you should be able to:
		1.	Define gene, allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous.
		2.	Describe the differences between Mendelian traits and quantitative traits.
		3.	Describe the factors responsible for variation of individuals within a population
		4.	Explain how genes are inherited and selectively expressed as physical characteristics.
		5.	Identify certain of your traits coded for by dominant or recessive gene pair
		6.	Describe the methods used to quantify traits coded for by many genes.
Introduction		There is a great deal of variation within nearly every population of organisms. Variation arises from a combination of genetic and environmental causes, each contributing equally on average. Owls, squirrels, rabbits and bears differ from each other by their physical characteristics, size and temperament. So do whales, porpoises, dorado fish, and most other populations of organisms. But within the population, there is also dramatic variation. Not all blue whales in the Pacific Ocean look the same! Variation is important for the continued survival of a species in changing environments. This lesson has two parts, Mendelian Genetics and Characteristics that Vary Continuously. Together, these exercises provide an opportunity to examine genetic variation within the human population, using the most interesting specimens of all...ourselves!
	Part I. Mendelian Genetics
Background Information		1.	Living things naturally exist in communities composed of some similar and some different kinds of organisms. Within populations of similar organisms, we see variations of certain traits expressed. For instance, snapdragons may have white or red flower petals; whales may be born with different patterns and markings on their flukes.
		2.	Many traits are produced by a single gene. Genes are units of inheritance. Single gene traits are called Mendelian traits because they follow the simple inheritance patterns first described by Gregor Mendel. In the 1850s, Mendel made hybrids between different varieties of pea plants and kept careful track of the traits displayed by the offspring. Mendel discovered that traits of the parent plants were passed on to the progeny plants in reproducible patterns. Mendel proposed that "units of inheritance" determined the traits in the pea plants. In humans, some Mendelian traits include hair curliness and hair color. Other traits, such as skin color and weight are affected by multiple genes.
Question		3.	Can you think of an analogy that would help clarify the versatility of genes? For example, one analogy might be: "A gene is like a single note in a song. You might play variations on the theme by playing the song in a different key or changing the harmony, but the overall tune is still the same." Can you think of other analogies?
Background		4.	The statistical analysis of Gregor Mendel's work suggested to him that two units of inheritance existed, which he called "factors," for each trait. We now know that normal humans have two copies of each of their 50,000 - 100,000 genes.
Questions		5.	Where do these two gene copies come from?
		6.	These gene copies are called alleles. Do you think both genes that we inherit are always identical? Explain.
		7.	What does it mean for one allele to be dominant to the other? Recessive?
		8.	If your mother had curly brown hair and your father had straight blond hair, would your hair be a mixture of the two types? Do genes "blend?" Explain.
		9.	Traits are visible expressions of the information contained in your genes. The physical appearance of a gene is called its phenotype. What is the genotype?
Exercise 1	Self-Classification According to Inherited Traits
Background		1.	In this lab, we will examine our own bodies for the presence of Mendelian traits (determine our phenotype); then we will approximate our genotype by comparing our observations to a chart of physical characteristics.
To Do		2.	Classify yourself with respect to the traits listed in Table 1, by indicating in the column marked X, for each trait, the first two pairs of symbols (homozygous dominant or heterozygous) or the third symbol (homozygous recessive). See Figure 1 for depictions of these traits.   Table 1. Trait, Genotypes, and Variations  Trait  Phenotype X Genotype 1. Hair color  brown, black, or red hair    LL or Ll    blond hair    ll 2. Hair type  naturally curly    TT or Tt    naturally straight    tt 3. Tongue curling  can curl tongue    CC or Cc    cannot curl tongue    cc 4. Mid-digital hair  hair present, middle digit of finger    MM or Mm    hair absent, middle digit of finger    mm 5. Pigmented iris  eyes not blue    EE or Ee    blue eyes    ee 6. Widow's peak  peak in center of hairline    WW or Ww    no peak in center of hairline    ww 7. Bent finger  little finger curves toward others    BB or Bb    little finger straight    bb
Background			Here are some things to know about these traits.
		3.	A dominant allele will be expressed if it is homozygous (that is, occurs with another dominant allele of the same type, such as LL) or if it is heterozygous (that is, it occurs in combination with a recessive allele, such as Ll).
		4.	A recessive allele is expressed when it is paired with another recessive allele of the same type (such as ll), but it is masked when combined with a dominant allele (such as in Ll).
		5.	Why can't you differentiate between a homozygous dominant or a heterozygous dominant pair of alleles (e.g. LL / Ll)? How might you be more certain of the genotype?
Figure 1. Phenotypes and Genotypes
Background		6.	If we consider the homozygous dominant (LL) and the heterozygote (Ll) to be indistinguishable, these seven pairs of alleles can produce two alternative characteristics or 14 traits altogether (that is, LL and Ll produce the dominant trait, while ll produces the recessive trait). These two alternative traits for each gene can be combined in 128 different ways. That is, 27 = 2 *2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 = 128.
To Do		7.	Determine which combination (1-128) of these seven alleles represents you by mapping your type onto the genetic wheel (see next page). Begin in the center and color in L_ (for LL or Ll) or ll. Then move out into the half of the wheel you have selected and fill in T_ or tt. Then move out into the quarter wheel you have selected and fill in C_ or cc....and so on. When you have completed the wheel, write your genotype and the number of your type below.
Question		8.	Does this help you understand why every person (except for identical twins) is so different? Explain.
		9.	If more genetic traits were included in the wheel analysis, would the number of pattern types in the class increase of decrease? Explain.
Figure 2. Genetic Wheel (obtained from Lawrence Hall of Science, U.C. Berkeley)   For a higher resolution genetic wheel click below: High-Resolution Wheel
Exercise 2		Summary Questions and Exercises
Background		1.	Here are some other traits of human beings that are produced by a single pair of alleles: Table 2. Other Medelian Traits in Humans Dominant Form   Recessive Form  long ear lobes  short ear lobes  white skin spotting  uniform skin color  astigmatism  no astigmatism  normal body size  midget  6 or more fingers  5 fingers  varicose veins  no varicose veins
To Do		2.	Design a genetic wheel to summarize these characteristics.
Question		3.	How many different combinations of these 6 traits exist?
		4.	Based on what you see in Table 2, would you say that all desirable genes are dominant? Are all dominant genes desirable? Is the dominant allele typically the most prevalent form of a gene in the population? Why or why not?
	Part II. Characteristics that Vary Continuously and How We Measure Them
Background		1.	Some characteristics cannot be separated into discrete categories like Mendelian traits. These characteristics are said to "vary continuously." Continuous variation results when many different genes affect a trait. In humans, skin color is affected by several pairs of genes. And behavioral qualities such as intelligence are affected by many, many different genes!
		2.	There are also a variety of environmental influences which contribute to the variation of living things. Can you give some examples?   .
		3.	This lesson will also review metric measures as a means of quantifying continuous traits.
Exercise 1		Organize Your Initial Knowledge
Question		1.	What is the metric system of measurement?
		2.	Arrange the following quantities from largest to smallest. 1 centimeter, 1 millimeter, 1 kilometer, 1 meter
		3.	Are the above units of mass or units of distance?
		4.	What is the approximate equivalent commonly used in the US of each of these quantities in the English system of measure? 1 centimeter ~ 1 millimeter ~ 1 kilometer ~ 1 meter ~ 3
		5.	What is the approximate metric equivalent for each of the following? 1 pound ~ 1 cup ~ 1 quart ~
		6.	What advantages are provided by the metric system compared to the English system?
Exercise 2	Measuring Continuous Variation
Background		Metric measurements are preferred in science because they are more precise due to the increased number of regular intervals. It is a good idea to become very familiar with metric measures.
		Using an appropriate metric tool, obtain the following measurements:
		1.	Your height, in centimeters: __________
		2.	Your arm span, finger tips to finger tips, in centimeters:
		3.	Your weight, in kilograms: __________ (you will have to calculate this unless you have a metric scale available)
		4.	Your forearm length, inside of your elbow to wrist, in centimeters:
		5.	The length of your foot, heel to longest toe, in centimeters:
Exercise 3	Pooling Data for Precision
Background		1.	Group data is generally more precise than individual data because small errors in measurement are averaged. Whenever possible, we perform experiments individually, and then summarize the results of all groups. The group results should generally be more meaningful than any individual result.
Question		2.	Let's use our data to check the following hypothesis: Arm span is approximately equal to height. Do you think this hypothesis is plausible? Why?
To Do		3.	To test it, first we need to summarize the data for the whole class and then obtain an average arm span and average height for all individuals (use Table 3). Table 3. Arm Span & Height of Class Members in Centimeters Initials  Arm Span, cm. Height, cm.
		4.	Next, interpret the data. Do the class averages support or refute the hypothesis?
		5.	To see how continuous traits vary, draw two different lines on the graph below (with metric measures) to summarize (a) the arm spans and (b) the heights of all individuals in the class. Or, use graph paper and set up your graph like the example below (Figure 3). Figure 3. Height and Arm Span of Individuals, cm.
To Note		6.	Your graph should have the following characteristics: a. an informative title b. a vertical axis, labeled with name of measure (Lgth, cm) c. a horizontal axis labeled with # of individuals d. values that are spaced equidistantly e. a dot at the intersection of each height with number of individuals at that height.
Question		7.	Compare the ratio of arm span to height by graphing one against the other (Figure 4). What do you predict the graph will look like? Figure 4. Arm Span versus Height for All Class Members
Exercise 4	Your Knowledge of the Metric System
Questions		1.	15 meters equals _______centimeters.
		2.	1500 meters equals how many kilometers?___________
		3.	Relate metric to English measures in the following: Two and one-half centimeters are approximately equal to a. an inch b. a foot c. a yard
		4.	One meter is approximately equal to a ___________.
		5.	A liter is similar to a ________ (but slightly bigger).
		6.	A kilometer is six-tenths (slightly more than half) of a ___________.
		7.	A kilogram is approximately equal to a. 1 pound b. 2.2 pounds c. 10 pounds
		8.	Five grams is approximately equal to a a. dime b. nickel c. quarter d. half dollar
Supplementary Resources		Postlethwait, J. H. & Hopson, J. L. (1995). The Nature of Life, Third Edition. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Klare, Roger. Gregor Mendel: Father of Genetics. Enslow Publishers. 1997. Landa, Norbert and Patrick Baeuerle. Ingenious Genes. Barron's Juveniles. 1998. Marshall, Elizabeth L. The Human Genome Project: Cracking the Code Within Us. Franklin Watts, Inc. 1997.
Related AAAS Benchmarks		Chapter 1: THE NATURE OF SCIENCE Section B: Scientific Inquiry Grade K-2 Benchmark 2 of 4 Tools such as thermometers, magnifiers, rulers, or balances often give more information about things than can be obtained by just observing things without their help. Section C: The Scientific Enterprise Grade K-2 Benchmark 2 of 3 In doing science, it is often helpful to work with a team and to share findings with others. All team members should reach their own individual conclusions, however, about what the findings mean. Grade 3-5 Benchmark 1 of 3 Science is an adventure that people everywhere can take part in, as they have for many centuries.   Chapter 5: THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT Section A: Diversity of Life Grades K-2 Benchmark 1 (of 3) Some animals and plants are alike in the way they look and in the things they do, and others are very different from one another. Section B: Heredity Grades K-2 Benchmark 1 (of 2) There is variation among individuals of one kind within a population. Grades K-2 Benchmark 2 (of 2) Offspring are very much, but not exactly, like their parents and like one another. Grades 3-5 Benchmark 1 (of 2) Some likenesses between children and parents, such as eye color in human beings, or fruit or flower color in plants, are inherited. Other likenesses, such as people's table manners or carpentry skills, are learned. Grades 3-5 Benchmark 2 (of 2) For offspring to resemble their parents, there must be a reliable way to transfer information from one generation to the next. Grades 6-8 Benchmark 1 (of 3) In some kinds of organisms, all the genes come from a single parent, whereas in organisms that have sexes, typically half of the genes come from each parent.   Chapter 6: THE HUMAN ORGANISM Section A: Human Identity Grades K-2 Benchmark 1 (of 3) People have different external features, such as the size, shape, and color of hair, skin, and eyes, but they are more like one another than like other animals. Section B: Human Development Grades K-2 Benchmark 1 (of 2) All animals have offspring, usually with two parents involved. People may prevent some animals from producing offspring.   Chapter 12: HABITS OF MIND Section B: Computation and Estimation Grades K-2 Benchmark 5 (of 5) Make quantitative estimates of familiar lengths, weights, and time intervals and check them by measurements. Section D: Communication Skills Grades 6-8 Benchmark 1 (of 5) Organize information in simple tables and graphs and identify relationships they reveal.